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feat(seo-audit): add International SEO & Localization section

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Add comprehensive internationalization coverage to the SEO audit skill,
backed by 40+ sources from Google Search Central, John Mueller, and
authoritative SEO publications.

New section covers:
- Hreflang implementation (placement, reciprocal refs, x-default, scale)
- Canonicalization for multilingual sites (self-referencing, conflict rules)
- International sitemaps (structure, size limits, Next.js caveats)
- Locale URL structure (subdirectories vs ccTLDs, content negotiation)
- Content quality across locales (AI translation stance, thin pages, HCU)

Also adds:
- Multilingual/Multi-Regional site type to Common Issues
- references/international-seo.md with evidence and source URLs
- Version bump to 1.2.0
This commit is contained in:
Bassel Koshak
2026-04-02 10:48:18 +03:00
parent 7c8c087486
commit d97425f15b
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skills/seo-audit/SKILL.md
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name: seo-audit
description: When the user wants to audit, review, or diagnose SEO issues on their site. Also use when the user mentions "SEO audit," "technical SEO," "why am I not ranking," "SEO issues," "on-page SEO," "meta tags review," "SEO health check," "my traffic dropped," "lost rankings," "not showing up in Google," "site isn't ranking," "Google update hit me," "page speed," "core web vitals," "crawl errors," or "indexing issues." Use this even if the user just says something vague like "my SEO is bad" or "help with SEO" — start with an audit. For building pages at scale to target keywords, see programmatic-seo. For adding structured data, see schema-markup. For AI search optimization, see ai-seo.
metadata:
version: 1.1.0
version: 1.2.0
---
# SEO Audit
@@ -155,6 +155,80 @@ Reporting "no schema found" based solely on `web_fetch` or `curl` leads to false
---
## International SEO & Localization
Check when the site serves multiple languages or regions. Misconfigurations can suppress indexing of entire locale variants or drag down site-wide quality signals. See [International SEO reference](references/international-seo.md) for evidence and source URLs.
### Hreflang
Three equivalent placement methods: HTML `<link>` in `<head>`, HTTP `Link` headers, XML sitemap `<xhtml:link>`. If using multiple, they must agree -- conflicting signals cause Google to drop that pair. For 10+ locales, prefer sitemap-based (no page weight, no per-request cost).
**Check for:**
- Self-referencing entry on every page (page must include itself in the hreflang set)
- Reciprocal links (if A points to B, B must point back to A -- or both are ignored)
- Valid codes: ISO 639-1 language + optional ISO 3166-1 Alpha 2 region (e.g., `en`, `en-GB` -- never `en-UK`)
- `x-default` present, pointing to fallback page (language selector or default locale)
- All target URLs return 200, are indexable, and match their canonical URL
- No duplicate language-region codes pointing to different URLs
**Common errors:** Missing self-referencing entry (all hreflang ignored). No return tag / one-directional (pair dropped). Invalid codes like `en-UK` (use `en-GB`). Hreflang target is non-canonical, 404, or blocked (cluster discarded). HTML and sitemap annotations disagree (conflicting pair dropped).
**At scale:** `<xhtml:link>` children don't count toward 50K URL sitemap limit, but the 50MB file size limit becomes the bottleneck (plan 2K-5K URLs per file with full hreflang). Focus hreflang on pages receiving wrong-language traffic -- not required on every page. For Bing: supplement with `<html lang>` and `<meta http-equiv="content-language">` (Bing treats hreflang as a weak signal).
### Canonicalization for Multilingual Sites
- Each locale page must self-canonical (e.g., `/ar/page` canonicals to `/ar/page`)
- Never cross-locale canonical (French to English) -- suppresses the non-canonical locale entirely
- Canonical URL must appear in the hreflang set -- if not, all hreflang is ignored
- Canonical overrides hreflang when they conflict
- Protocol/domain must be consistent across canonical, hreflang, and sitemap (`https` + same domain variant)
- Paginated locale pages: self-referencing canonical per page (never canonical page 2+ to page 1)
**Common mistakes:** all locales canonical to English (kills indexing), canonical URL not in hreflang set (silently ignored), protocol mismatch between canonical and hreflang, CMS setting deep page canonical to homepage.
### International Sitemaps
**Check for:**
- `xmlns:xhtml` namespace on `<urlset>`, each `<url>` includes `<xhtml:link>` for all locales including itself
- `x-default` alternate included; all URLs absolute (full protocol + domain)
- Sitemap index in Search Console and robots.txt; split by content type, not by locale
**Next.js caveat:** `alternates.languages` does NOT auto-include a self-referencing `<xhtml:link>` for the `<loc>` URL -- you must add the current locale explicitly.
### Locale URL Structure
**Recommended:** Subdirectories (`/en/`, `/ar/`). **Acceptable:** Subdomains or ccTLDs. **Not recommended:** URL parameters (`?lang=en`).
**Check for:**
- Consistent locale prefix strategy; all locales prefixed (hiding locale from URLs prevents Google from distinguishing versions)
- Root URL handled as `x-default` with redirect, or serves default locale content
- No IP/Accept-Language content negotiation (Googlebot: US IPs, no Accept-Language header)
- Trailing slash + case consistency across locale paths, canonicals, hreflang, and sitemaps
- 301 redirects from non-canonical format to canonical
**Note:** Google's International Targeting report in Search Console is deprecated. Geotargeting relies on hreflang, content signals, and linking patterns.
### Content Quality Across Locales
**Translation quality:**
- AI-translated content is not inherently spam (Google's 2025 stance), but scaled low-value translations can trigger scaled content abuse policy
- Google uses visible content to determine language -- translate ALL page content (title, description, headings, body), not just boilerplate
- Translating only template/nav while main content stays in original language creates duplicates
**Thin locale pages:**
- Helpful content system is site-wide -- many thin locale pages can suppress rankings for strong pages too
- Don't noindex thin locales (wastes crawl budget) or cross-locale canonical (conflicts with hreflang)
- Best approach: don't create locale pages you cannot make genuinely helpful
**Check for:**
- All locale pages have fully translated main content (not just UI chrome)
- No near-identical content across locales ("Duplicate, Google chose different canonical" in GSC)
- Hreflang only for locales with genuine content and search demand
- Localized signals: currency, phone format, addresses where applicable
- Broken hreflang links (404s, redirects) waste crawl budget AND invalidate hreflang clusters
---
## On-Page SEO Audit
### Title Tags
@@ -164,7 +238,7 @@ Reporting "no schema found" based solely on `web_fetch` or `curl` leads to false
- Primary keyword near beginning
- 50-60 characters (visible in SERP)
- Compelling and click-worthy
- No brand name placement (SERPs include brand name above title already)
- Brand name placement (end, usually)
**Common issues:**
- Duplicate titles
@@ -325,6 +399,16 @@ Reporting "no schema found" based solely on `web_fetch` or `curl` leads to false
- Poor internal linking
- Missing author pages
### Multilingual / Multi-Regional Sites
- Hreflang errors (missing return tags, invalid codes, no self-reference)
- Canonical conflicting with hreflang (cross-locale canonical suppresses indexing)
- Thin locale pages dragging down site-wide quality signal
- Only boilerplate translated, main content identical across locales
- No x-default fallback declared
- Sitemap missing hreflang alternates or missing reciprocal entries
- IP-based redirects hiding content from Googlebot
- Framework locale mode hiding locale from URLs
### Local Business
- Inconsistent NAP
- Missing local schema
@@ -368,6 +452,7 @@ Same format as above
## References
- [AI Writing Detection](references/ai-writing-detection.md): Common AI writing patterns to avoid (em dashes, overused phrases, filler words)
- [International SEO](references/international-seo.md): Evidence and sources for hreflang, canonical + i18n, sitemaps, URL structure, and content quality across locales
- For AI search optimization (AEO, GEO, LLMO, AI Overviews), see the **ai-seo** skill
---
skills/seo-audit/references/international-seo.md
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# International SEO: Evidence & Sources
Detailed evidence backing the International SEO & Localization section of the SEO Audit skill. Organized by topic with source URLs and key quotes.
---
## Hreflang
### Placement Methods
Google supports three equivalent methods: HTML `<link>` in `<head>`, HTTP `Link` headers, and XML sitemap `<xhtml:link>` elements. Google confirmed no method is prioritized over another.
Google combines signals from both HTML and sitemaps. If the same language-region pair points to different URLs across methods, Google drops that pair rather than guessing.
- [Google Search Central: Localized Versions](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/international/localized-versions)
- [SEJ: Google Combines Hreflang Signals](https://www.searchenginejournal.com/google-combines-hreflang-signals-from-html-sitemaps/389219/)
### Reciprocal Requirement
Google's docs: "If page X links to page Y, page Y must link back to page X. If not, those annotations may be ignored or not interpreted correctly."
Every page must include itself (self-referencing) in the hreflang set. Missing self-referencing is the #1 error found by Semrush audits. A study of 374,756 domains found 67% of hreflang implementations had issues.
- [Google Search Central: Localized Versions](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/international/localized-versions)
- [Semrush: 9 Common Hreflang Errors](https://www.semrush.com/blog/hreflang-errors/)
- [SE Land: 31% of International Websites Contain Hreflang Errors](https://searchengineland.com/study-31-of-international-websites-contain-hreflang-errors-395161)
### x-default
Introduced April 2013. Designates the fallback page for users whose language/region matches no declared variant. Can point to the same URL as one of the language-specific alternates. Must be included in the complete set of annotations on every variant page.
- [Google Blog: x-default hreflang](https://developers.google.com/search/blog/2013/04/x-default-hreflang-for-international-pages)
- [Google Blog: How x-default can help you (2023)](https://developers.google.com/search/blog/2023/05/x-default)
### Language & Region Codes
Language: ISO 639-1 (2-letter). Region: ISO 3166-1 Alpha 2 (2-letter). Format: `language[-script][-region]`.
You cannot specify a region code alone. Common mistakes: `en-UK` (should be `en-GB`), `es-419` (not ISO 3166-1). A study found 8.9% of sites using hreflang contain invalid language codes.
- [Google Search Central: Localized Versions](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/international/localized-versions)
- [SE Land: 31% Study](https://searchengineland.com/study-31-of-international-websites-contain-hreflang-errors-395161)
### Hreflang at Scale (20+ locales)
With 20 locales, HTML `<head>` hreflang adds ~1.5KB per page for zero user benefit. Sitemap-based hreflang has zero runtime performance impact. `<xhtml:link>` child elements do NOT count toward the 50,000 URL sitemap limit (only `<loc>` elements count).
John Mueller recommends focusing hreflang on pages receiving wrong-language traffic, not every page: "I wouldn't do it for any of the other pages of the site because it's so complex & hard to manage."
- [SERoundtable: Child Elements Don't Count](https://www.seroundtable.com/google-child-elements-dont-count-towards-sitemap-url-limit-34377.html)
- [SERoundtable: Where To Focus Hreflang](https://www.seroundtable.com/using-hreflang-34127.html)
- [Yoast: hreflang Ultimate Guide](https://yoast.com/hreflang-ultimate-guide/)
### Google vs Bing
Bing treats hreflang as a "weak signal." Bing relies on `content-language` meta tag, HTML `lang` attribute, ccTLDs, and server location. Yandex supports hreflang like Google.
For both engines: implement hreflang (Google/Yandex) + `<html lang="...">` + `<meta http-equiv="content-language">` (Bing).
- [Digital Ready Marketing: Bing Doesn't Use Hreflang](https://digitalreadymarketing.com/bing-doesnt-use-hreflang-annotation-what-does-it-use/)
- [Yoast: hreflang Ultimate Guide](https://yoast.com/hreflang-ultimate-guide/)
---
## Canonicalization & i18n
### Self-Referencing Canonicals
Each locale page must canonical to itself. John Mueller: "Don't use a rel=canonical across languages/countries, only use it on a per-country/language basis."
Google's docs: "Specify a canonical page in the same language, or the best possible substitute language if a canonical doesn't exist for the same language."
- [John Mueller: hreflang canonical](https://johnmu.com/hreflang-canonical/)
- [Google: Consolidate Duplicate URLs](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/crawling-indexing/consolidate-duplicate-urls)
### Canonical Overrides Hreflang
Mueller: "If your canonical is pointing somewhere else, Google will follow that and ignore your hreflang annotation." The canonical URL must be one of the URLs in the hreflang set, or all hreflang markup is ignored.
Google also states: "Google prefers URLs that are part of hreflang clusters for canonicalization" -- when signals align, hreflang strengthens canonical selection.
- [John Mueller: hreflang canonical](https://johnmu.com/hreflang-canonical/)
- [SEJ: Hreflang Tags Are Hints](https://www.searchenginejournal.com/google-reminds-that-hreflang-tags-are-hints-not-directives/546428/)
- [Google: Consolidate Duplicate URLs](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/crawling-indexing/consolidate-duplicate-urls)
### Near-Duplicate Regional Variants
Mueller (2023 Office Hours): "If the content is completely the same, and we can't tell any difference, then for simplicity and user experience we may just show one version -- even if hreflang is present."
Google's duplicate detection runs BEFORE hreflang evaluation. To keep both versions indexed, you need substantive content differences beyond currency symbols.
- [International Web Mastery: Same-Language Duplicate Pages](https://internationalwebmastery.com/blog/how-google-handles-canonicalization-of-same-language-duplicate-near-duplicate-pages/)
- [Google: Managing Multi-Regional Sites](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/international/managing-multi-regional-sites)
### Pagination Across Locales
Google: "Don't use the first page of a paginated sequence as the canonical page. Instead, give each page its own canonical URL." Each paginated page in each locale gets self-referencing canonical. `rel="next/prev"` deprecated March 2019.
- [Google: Pagination Best Practices](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/ecommerce/pagination-and-incremental-page-loading)
---
## International Sitemaps
### Structure
Each `<url>` entry includes `<xhtml:link>` alternates for every locale. Requires `xmlns:xhtml="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"` namespace.
Split sitemaps by content type, not by locale. Splitting by locale creates maintenance problems because every locale sitemap must reference every other locale (reciprocal requirement).
- [Google Search Central: Localized Versions](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/international/localized-versions)
- [Lumar: How Google Handles Hreflang](https://www.lumar.io/office-hours/hreflang/)
### Size Limits
50,000 URLs / 50MB uncompressed per sitemap. Only `<loc>` elements count toward the 50K limit. But with 20 hreflang alternates per entry, the 50MB file size limit becomes the bottleneck. Plan for 2,000-5,000 URLs per sitemap when using full hreflang.
- [Google: Build and Submit a Sitemap](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/crawling-indexing/sitemaps/build-sitemap)
- [SERoundtable: Sitemap 50,000 Limit](https://www.seroundtable.com/google-sitemap-50-000-limit-based-on-location-urls-not-alternative-urls-33843.html)
### Submission
Submit the sitemap index in Search Console AND reference it in robots.txt. Individual child sitemaps can be submitted separately for per-sitemap reporting.
- [Google: Build and Submit a Sitemap](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/crawling-indexing/sitemaps/build-sitemap)
### Next.js Caveat
Next.js `alternates.languages` does NOT automatically include a self-referencing `<xhtml:link>` for the `<loc>` URL. You must explicitly include the `<loc>` URL's own language in the `languages` object.
- [Next.js Docs: sitemap.xml](https://nextjs.org/docs/app/api-reference/file-conventions/metadata/sitemap)
---
## URL Structure
### Strategies Compared
Google treats subdirectories and subdomains equivalently. Mueller: "From our point of view...they say subdomains and subdirectories are essentially equivalent."
URL parameters (`?lang=en`) are explicitly "Not recommended" per Google docs.
- [Google: Managing Multi-Regional Sites](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/international/managing-multi-regional-sites)
### Default Language
Mueller recommends: set `/` as x-default, put each language in its own prefix. Without marking `/` as x-default, "to Google it can look like '/' is a separate page from the others."
- [Google Blog: x-default](https://developers.google.com/search/blog/2023/05/x-default)
- [Google Blog: Creating the Right Homepage](https://developers.google.com/search/blog/2014/05/creating-right-homepage-for-your)
### Content Negotiation / IP Redirects
Google strongly advises against locale-adaptive pages. Googlebot crawls from US IPs and does not send Accept-Language headers. Separate URLs + hreflang are required.
- [Google: Locale-Adaptive Pages](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/international/locale-adaptive-pages)
### Trailing Slash Consistency
Mueller: trailing slash is "a significant part of the URL and will change the URL if it's there or not." Pick one format for all locale paths, internal links, canonicals, hreflang, and sitemaps.
Mueller (2025): "Consistency is the biggest technical SEO factor."
- [SERoundtable: Consistency Is The Biggest Technical SEO Factor](https://www.seroundtable.com/google-consistency-seo-40427.html)
### Search Console Geotargeting
The International Targeting report is deprecated. Google now relies entirely on hreflang, content language analysis, and linking patterns. You can add subdirectory properties for per-locale reporting.
- [Google Support: International Targeting Deprecated](https://support.google.com/webmasters/answer/12474899?hl=en)
### Framework Locale Modes
Use `localePrefix: 'always'` (next-intl) or equivalent. Never hide locale from URLs -- Google needs unique URLs per language. Using `'never'` mode disables alternate links entirely.
- [next-intl: Routing Configuration](https://next-intl.dev/docs/routing/configuration)
- [Next.js Discussion #18419](https://github.com/vercel/next.js/discussions/18419)
---
## Content Quality Across Locales
### Auto-Translated Content (2025 Stance)
Google removed longstanding guidance advising against auto-translated content in mid-2025. Current stance: "Our policies do not strictly define content that has been translated by AI as spam." The scaled content abuse policy mentions translation as a possible vector, but does not ban it.
Reddit scaled AI translations to 35+ languages with Google's knowledge. The key distinction is intent and quality, not the method.
- [Google Spam Policies](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/essentials/spam-policies)
- [Glenn Gabe: Auto-Translating Content](https://www.gsqi.com/marketing-blog/auto-translating-content-google-scaled-content-abuse/)
- [SE Land: Reddit AI Translations](https://searchengineland.com/google-comments-on-reddits-use-of-ai-to-translate-its-pages-456908)
### Thin Locale Pages
Google: "Localized versions of a page are only considered duplicates if the main content of the page remains untranslated." Pages with only translated boilerplate get clustered as duplicates.
Do NOT use noindex for unwanted locale pages (wastes crawl budget). Do NOT canonical cross-locale (conflicts with hreflang). Best approach: don't create locale pages you can't make genuinely helpful.
- [Google: Localized Versions](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/international/localized-versions)
- [Google: Crawl Budget Management](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/crawling-indexing/large-site-managing-crawl-budget)
### Helpful Content System Impact
Merged into core ranking March 2024. Site-wide signal: "any content -- not just unhelpful content -- on sites determined to have relatively high amounts of unhelpful content overall is less likely to perform well in Search."
Low-quality translated pages can drag down the entire site. This is the strongest argument against creating locale pages that aren't genuinely helpful.
- [Google Blog: Helpful Content Update](https://developers.google.com/search/blog/2022/08/helpful-content-update)
- [Amsive: What Changed in 2024](https://www.amsive.com/insights/seo/googles-helpful-content-update-ranking-system-what-happened-and-what-changed-in-2024/)
### Partial Translation
Google: "Translating only the boilerplate text of your pages while keeping the bulk of your content in a single language...can create a bad user experience." Google uses visible content (not lang attribute) to determine page language.
Translate ALL content on a page if you create a locale version. Untranslated metadata (title, description) in the wrong language reduces CTR.
- [Google: Managing Multi-Regional Sites](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/international/managing-multi-regional-sites)
### Crawl Budget
Only a concern for 1M+ pages or 10K+ pages changing daily. But alternate URLs (hreflang targets) do consume crawl budget. Broken hreflang links waste budget AND invalidate signals.
- [Google: Crawl Budget Management](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/crawling-indexing/large-site-managing-crawl-budget)
- [Google Blog: Crawl Budget](https://developers.google.com/search/blog/2017/01/what-crawl-budget-means-for-googlebot)
### Locale-Specific Signals
Google identifies audience via: "local addresses and phone numbers on the pages, the use of local language and currency, links from other local sites, or signals from your Business Profile."
- [Google: Managing Multi-Regional Sites](https://developers.google.com/search/docs/specialty/international/managing-multi-regional-sites)